OUGD505 - Studio Brief 2 - How can we best utilise green space in cities? - Research

How can we best utilise green space in cities?

Further Research in relation to key questions and topics 

Green Space Overview 

What does biodiversity need from a green space? 

- suitable habitats for biodiversity are needed within urban green spaces 

- guidelines on how to reverse loss of biodiversity or increase it is lacking 

- research examined the responses of bats, bees, birds, beetles and bugs to three attributes of urban green space vegitation that can be controlled

- increasing understorey vegitation and native vegitation led to positive results. There was a 30 - 120% higher rate of bats, native birds, beetles and bugs from a 10 - 30% increase in understorey volume and 10 - 140% across native animals when native plants were increased by 10 - 30%.

- increasing the the density of large native trees had a neutral effect

- increased understorey cover and native plantings in urban green spaces can improve biodiversity outcomes

- urban green spaces are very fragmented, small and isolated patches of green space

- only 13% of urban tree cover is within patches bigger than 0.25 hectres

- the amount of urban green spaces is a good indicator of of biodiversity

- evidence suggests that patch size and quality are important in driving plant and animal populations in cities 

- studies on birds have suggested 10–35 hectares of continuous green space are required to support most urbanized species with forest bird species (avoiders) requiring larger areas

- most city parks fall considerably below this size range  

- Modeling studies predict that adding just a small amount of additional green space (150 square meters) to small neighborhood parks will considerably increase bird species richness

-  little understanding of thresholds in patch size for other animal groups or plants

- The ability of green space to support biodiversity can be moderated by urban intensity and structure

- animal species need a variety of habitat types to provide resources for themselves

- a variety of green spaces can help towards this 

- there is little understanding as to how green spaces are used by animals 

- requires different habitat types within an urban area and whether these can be met within a single green space or not.

- less mobile species might acquire all required resources within a single patch, whereas others must move across larger areas, such as some bee species

- At the landscape scale, the diversity of green spaces within urban areas increases plant species diversity

- the presence of diverse resources across green space types explains the presence of diverse animal communities

- At the local scale, habitat heterogeneity within green spaces increases the species richness of multiple taxa  whereas vegetation structure and complexity enhance the diversity of urban forest bird communities

- planting to suit the area can reduce maintenance costs and bring in the right kind of animals e.g. wet lands should be planted with plants that live in wet areas

- rather than  lawns mixed with exotic species which need time and input, native vegetation can offer more support to ecosystems  

- Biodiversity is not only an issue of the quantity of species and their habitats, but of the quality of areas and processes.

- integrate biodiversity goals directly into urban planning
- habitat structure is important to animal biodiversity and includes understorey and canopy vegetation, leaf litter, logs , long grass, wetlands, streams, ponds etc
- the composition of plant species in green spaces is a determinant of biodiversity e.g. insects and animal richness
- both native and exotic plants can contribute to biodiversity
- cities are located on areas of high biological diversity however urbanisation has significant effect on land use changes leading to habitat loss and fragmentation

Defining the difference between green spaces
- urban green spaces can be public or private land
- differences in ownership have an effect on the composition and distribution of green spaces in the urban landscape

Regenerating disused space

How are disused spaces being used? 
- parking lots, former industrial sites / brown field sites and abandoned infrastructure like railways are being converted into new green spaces 
- the parklets of San Francisco have improved street life and encouraged more active lifestyles
- in Seoul in Korea, freeways have been taken down to provide space for people plants and animals. The Cheonggyecheon project stream restoration project has had a variety of benefits 
- The High Line Trail in New York has used a disused railway line as a new green space which has become a major attraction 
- under utilised and abandoned spaces such as railway corridors, empty lots, street verges or power line easements could make good parks 
- unused land within cities e.g the banks of railways, can provide corridors between larger areas and enhance biodiversity habitats 

Why are they not being used? 

- some spaces are privately owned 

- under utilised parks are seen as assets to be sold

Improving current space

How do / can they cater for both people and biodiversity? 

- green spaces allow interaction between city residents 

- by promoting quality green space within cities biodiversity can be protected and enhanced and brought closer to people in cities
- urban bird habitat can be improved by retaining large trees, increasing the proportion of native vegetation and improving habitat complexity with understorey and overstorey canopy vegetation, leaf litter, logs and long grass
- grassed areas allow space for recreation
- lawns negatively affect native biodiversity as they provide little habitat for wildlife 

What spaces are most important for people and biodiversity? 
- underground food webs need to be considered so that beneficial predators can be preserved by providing them with food
- different compositions of leaf litter in parks create differences in species richness
- earthworms decrease in soils covered with gravel and increase in soils covered with bark mulch without plants
- amphibians can survive in urban waterbodies e.g. wetlands, streams, garden ponds, etc

How can they be maintained?

- there should be a balanced system of protection, sustainable use and management of local, regional, national and European levels

Do city green spaces meet the needs of people and biodiversity?
- the walkable quality of the street environment requires destinations and attractive spaces that encourage people to spend time in their streets and local amenities
- density needs to be appropriate, in the right location, appropriate height , good land use mix and good design for it to create compact and attractive walkable urban neighborhoods
- Green infrastructure should go beyond just parks and consider greening solutions such as green roofs, walls, facades and increased greening in streetscapes
- there is limited research into the benefits of urban green spaces for non human organisms because there is a focus on individual species which have narrow geographic ranges making generalisations difficult
- the vegitation and structures that make up green spaces can contribute directly to species diversity
- green spaces can provide habitats for other organisms
- green spaces are important for the conservation of native species
- some species are disadvantaged by urbanisation whilst others can survive
- population density has an effect on the distribution of green cover and fragments green space
- high population densities lead to more hard surfaces and less impermeable surfaces where plants can grow
- there are large scale benefits for human health and wellbeing, ecosystems and biodiversity
- pleasant and well maintained environments in city centres increase the amount of people going to visit 
- evidence suggests that people are happier with public green spaces and will use them more if they have natural elements. A study in Chicago found that people in apartments used public spaces more if they were natural rather than manmade. This also increased more socialising with neighbours 

What is good quality green space?
- environmental psychology literature suggests people prefer natural scenes in cities compared to scenes that include built elements
- quality features include focal points e.g trees, connected pathways and seating, nature and the absence of litter and graffiti
- building fewer higher quality parks was preferable to building a larger number of smaller lesser parks
- high quality parks include grassed areas, amenities, dog related facilities, gardens, walking paths, water features and wildlife
- studies have suggested that people prefer different kinds of green space. Landscape preferences are based on values, so people who are more environmentally focused / have ecocentric values prefer wild landscapes whilst people with human centered values like more managed landscapes
- preferences for messy biodiverse areas can be improved by adding a frame such as a fence around the outside to show the area is cared for
- to appeal to a broader audience and meet the needs of a wider group of people a range of places need to be created within green spaces
- sites need to be planned at different scales according to the city, region, neighborhood and site.
- they should be considered as part of an interconnected system rather than individual sites.
- a good quality of life is influenced by the quality of the urban environment
- different green spaces have different purposes
- people value green space from different reasons and green spaces need to reflect the needs of the community both now and in the future 
- the benefits of green spaces are related to its proximity, accessibility and connectivity  


How can the benefits of these spaces be communicated?

- community awareness and knowledge help inform planning 
- areas of native plants should be kept as they create a local identity and sense of place 
- cities are seen as poor areas for biodiversity, however in some areas the diversity of plants and animals can be higher in cities then in surrounding area
- the spaces need to be quality and be maintained 

Do people feel connected to nature in green spaces? 

- there are poor or uninformed perceptions of 'nature' 

- 'nature' for many suggest places far from cities and the opposite to the places they live in 

- there is a focus on preserving these places and less emphasis on looking after the urban landscape where most people live 

- ecosystems in any area are connected

- the management and selection of plants in green spaces has implications for the pollination of vegetation and food production 

- urban wildlife habitats provide a focus for local communities, who also become attached to the spaces.
- The Greenwich Open Space Project in south London evaluated the attitudes to nature in peoples lives. It was found that accessibility to nature was highly valued and being able to experience different things within nature. It was also found that for people just the knowledge of the natural area existing provided satisfaction for many.

How can street spaces be better used? 

- encourage vegetation near buildings with planting on balconies, in window boxes and on roofs

Making spaces multifunctional

How are city spaces made multi-functional?

- green spaces were originally just seen as places for single use

- Green infrastructure has more benefits

- green spaces can have multiple functions at a fraction of the cost 

- e.g. a restored wetland will help with flooding and also provide homes for wildlife

- compatible land uses can be combined to create land management combinations that support land uses the same area

How do they work for both people and biodiversity?

- design and delivery of open spaces that enable and promote the health and well being of people and the environment is a challenge for planning in cities

- there is more focus on a denser urban setting which puts pressure on public and green spaces
- public health research aims to understand the health benefits of open space and how this can be considered in land use planning, while environmental research focuses on the benefits of patterns in land cover types e.g. vegetation type
- the availability of neighbourhood green space, streetscape vegitation, landscaping and paths allows for social interaction and is associated with an increase in perceived community and social cohesion

Connecting spaces

How do we connect spaces? 

- wildlife corridors are useful for enhancing biodiversity 

-  evidence has shown that landscape connectivity enhances biodiversity in fragmented urban habitats

- Landscape genetic techniques have confirmed that connectivity can increase gene flow between urban green spaces

- models of networks suggest that even small patches within a city have the potential to connect populations of highly mobile and small animals

- it is unknown whether continuous connections between spaces or stepping stones which enhance connectivity through less space are more effective 

- evidence suggests that corridors may be more effective than stepping-stone habitats for multiple taxa but these results were based on only two cities

- Corridors may enhance plant and animal biodiversity, as has been shown in forest ecosystems

- engage businesses that can help with biodiversity e.g. railway companies that have land along their tracks

- natural features can act as wildlife corridors or stepping stones  e.g. pond, hedgerows, woodland strips, watercourses, manmade corridors such as fish ladders on rivers or eco bridges over motorways

- corridors and stepping stones allow species to get past barriers 

- these help plant species spread and provide more space for animals to connect and find resources 

- green bridges - and eco ducts reduce accidents with animals and cars  

- protected areas support green infrastructure 

- natural and semi natural areas are needed to connect green and blue spaces to create a network

Why is it important to connect spaces? 

- Urban environments are part of larger ecosystems but are often are isolated 

- reconnecting cities with the wider environment has an effect on people within the city and local wildlife populations 

- For instance they allow animals (e.g. birds, foxes and bees) to move between core green areas
- restored habitats can help reconnect or enhance existing natural areas e.g reed beds  or wild flower meadows

Improving individuals space

How can people improve their own green space to benefit them and biodiversity?

- promote residential gardens, both decorative or vegetable gardens are more diverse than plain lawns 

https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jul/09/the-end-of-park-life-as-we-know-it-the-battle-for-britains-green-spaces-rowan-moore
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.12876/abstract
http://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/file_store/production/240460/AB037479-0936-4DB6-A6B6-2C597CE461D3.pdf
http://81.47.175.201/montseny/attachments/article/123/managing_urban_biodiversity.pdf
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ecosystems/benefits/index_en.htm
https://www.healthybydesignsa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Green-Spaces-Evidence-Review-FINAL_website.pdf
https://theconversation.com/our-cities-need-more-green-spaces-for-rest-and-play-heres-how-28271
https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/sites/default/files/asset/document/the-value-of-public-space1.pdf