OUGD505 - Studio Brief 2 - Making Cities Green - Research Articles

Making Cities Green 

Urban Gardening : how to go green in the city 

- people are making use of small spaces that they have in cities e.g. windowsills, balconies, walls and growing fresh produce 
- all can be done with limited resources
- Edible Cities - Urban Permaculture for Gardens, Yards, Balconies, Rooftops and Beyond by Judith Anger
- Capital Growth is a food growing project in London which helps people who want to grow food at home, in alloments and as groups. It helps train people, gives opportunities and helps people to find somewhere to grow in their area. It uses spaces such as schools, roofs, skips, housing estates and canal banks.
- gardening is not just a hobby it can help supply local food for people 
- Kensington and Chelsea have community kitchen gardens, which a variety of people get involved in 
- Mark Ridsdill Smith writes a blog that shows people how to grow without ground space. He also runs a Vertical veg club and runs a course

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/gardeningadvice/10673079/Urban-gardening-how-to-go-green-in-the-city.html

Why we need to bring Nature back into cities

- Urban areas could be the solution to the survival of some wildlife species 
- Nature needs to be incorporated into urban areas in new ways 
- there is a migration of people from rural to urban areas
- cities protect and seperate humans from the natural environment, their is a process of selection and getting rid of other parts
- cities are not isolated places they use resources from outside their areas e.g. farm land etc meaning they have a footprint larger than the actual space they take up.
- urban areas cover 2% of the planet, by 2030 10% could be covered 
- 1.2 million square kilometers could be lost to urban construction
- cities need to incorporate the the natural world in new ways
- parks and green spaces should be multiplied upwards  
- Marin Bay Sand Hotel has a skypark on the 56th floor, this shows how elements of the natural world can be replicated e.g. mountaintop views
- vertical farms are not practical for large scale food production, however hobby growers, farmers and beekeepers are likely to take up multistorey growing.
- Roof top fishfarms have been created in Berlin with waste going on agricultural plots 
- Industrial spaces, street corners and rooftops are converted into micro gardens
- Guerilla Gardeners plant things in disused or empty plots around London
- Urban ecology studies the city and biophysical interactions 
- There are species of animals that rely on man made environments e.g. peregrine falcons, foxes
- unique plant ecosystems are being created 
- the changes in environment for wildlife will lead to new adaptations e.g. moths the colour of concrete , birds with louder calls  

http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130530-bringing-nature-back-into-cities

A challenge to cities: How can we incorporate green spaces?

- Urban green spaces combine the city and natural environment 
- green spaces can be difficult in cities because of space, resource and development problems 
- cities are congested and polluted but green spaces can help reduce this and improve life for people living in the city 
-  Definition for Urban Green Space 'they are public and private open spaces in urban areas, primarily covered by vegetation which is directly or indirectly available for users (Haq 2011) 

Characteristics of Urban Green Spaces 
- they can vary in size, cover, facilities and services
- includes parks, reserves, sporting fields, river banks, trails, community gardens, conservation areas
- they should not be more than five minutes away, so this should be considered during planning and design of cites

Benefits of Urban Green Spaces
- they can improve health, social well being and enjoyment of the environment 

Environmental Benefits 

- can include the maintenance of biodiversity and regulation of the urban climate
- minimises pollution by filtering air, removing pollution and lowering noise pollution 
- biodiversity and nature conservation in green spaces protects the reproduction of species and the conservation of plants, soil and water quality 
- creates a sense of relief and a link with the natural world

Economic and Aesthetic Benefits  

- saves energy because trees and green spaces reduce the temperature of buildings reducing the amount of energy needed to cool buildings artificially. They also help air curculation and give shade, lowering air temperature
- property values are increased because it is desirable to have green spaces which are aesthetic 

Social and Psychological Benefits 

- green spaces are used for recreation and wellbeing. They are used for leisure activities and are multi use.These spaces encourage people to interact and connect.
- they improve public health as they help with mental fatigue and reduces frustration and crime. They help people with health and mental well being by allowing people to relax. Physical health and well being is improved through sports, interacting with nature and being outside in fresh air and sunlight. It can also help with medical problems such as high blood pressure and cholesterol levels. 

Sustainability and Urban Green Spaces 

-  interdisciplinary approaches need to be considered to improve and develop new green spaces
- if green spaces are designed, managed and protected the quality of cities increases
- social aspects of green spaces include helping healthy and active lifestyles, opportunities to interact and expand social network and provide space for environmental education 
- green spaces can be found in business, retail, leisure development etc
- green spaces can have economic benefits such as the production of fruits, wood , jobs, tourism 
- green spaces reduce the impact of humans by reducing pollution and converting it to oxygen. This allows creates clean air , water and soil as well as providing places for urban wildlife 

https://www.arch2o.com/urban-green-spaces-challenge-cities/

Cities Alive Booklet 

- Population growth and climate change mean that cities need to provide for our needs and pleasure
- 'green' should not be considered and add on but as part of the solution 
- nature can contribute to urban technology and science 
- population growth, climate change, resource depletion, pollution and urbanisation are global challenges but felt most in cities
- Natural Environment White Paper 2011 and National Planning Policy Framework 2012 show how nature can help create more sustainable development. Reflects the public interest in green cities. The NPPF says that land needs to be multi-functional both in rural and urban developments and recognise that open land can have different functions for wildlife, recreation, minimising flood risk, food production and minimising carbon emissions
- The ecosystem services aimed to look at the value of nature as humans rely on the resources it provides
- 'Actions taken and decisions made now will have consequences far into the future for ecosystes, ecosystems services and human wellbeing'
- green infastructure is an effective tool in preventing flooding and heatwaves 
- Cities Alive suggests a design approach that promotes nature within urban environments
- the natural environment supplies economic prosperity, health and well being 
- aims to create a connected city ecosystem for people and wildlife
- components in cities that provide ecosystem services include, open spaces, natural areas, urban woodland and parks,green streets, squares, sustainable drainage systems, rivers and waterways , cycle paths and paths, greenroofs, walls and facades
- green infastructure aims to link and create new components 
- multifunctional design means spaces can have more than one purpose providing social, environmental and economic benefits 
- using nature in the the design of urban places can improve social cohesion, mental and physical health (with resulting economic savings), lower crime, economic vitality, inward investment and increased property prices; and better urban microclimates, reduced pollution, flood resistance, an increase in biodiversity and lower city carbon footprints.
- for this to be achieved there needs to be strong policies, collaboration,investment, embracing new technologies and long term views on the benefits to society.
- can be integrated into current and future designs in an aesthetic way 
- it is sustainable design for urban environments
- small scale interventions are important for limited space but it needs to be considered on a city scale also
- it can be difficult to protect existing green space from development 
- green spaces provide social and economic benefits 
- green infrastructure works best when joined together to form a wider network
- since 2007 a majority of people live in towns and cities, which has created social, economic and environmental pressures
- it is a challenge to create spaces that are innovative and safe and healthy for people and nature
- cities can combine nature and people to re-balance urbanisation 
- needs to work with nature rather than against it 
- high land prices, developments and urban infrastructure have pushed nature out 
- growing awareness from people and governments about the social,environmental and economic benefits
- The London Olympic Park , La Promenade Plantee in Paris and the High Line in New York were refurbished to integrate nature showing how areas can be successfully refurbished 
- In 2050 the population will reach 9 billion with 75% living in cities 
- urbanisation creates issues with microclimates, biodiversity . land prices etc 
- areas of social and economic deprivation often have poor health and reduced life expectancy which can be linked to less access to green space 
- green neighbourhoods often have higher house prices
- people recover from illness quicker so less is spent on healthcare 
- people move to cities for different reasons e.g. culture , experience, creating an aesthetic challenge of being able to create urban experiences that people will want

Encouraging Healthy and Sustainable Lifestyles 

- 2020 two thirds of OECD nations will be obese but this will remain the same as the generation of conscious consumers forms the larger demographic 
- focus more on healthy, sustainable and sociable lifestyles 
- city trees enhance traffic calming measure with tall trees making streets feel narrower, slowing drivers , whilst close trees create a sense of speed. No trees create a sense of no hazard encoraging dangerous driving 
- road reallocations allow more space for pedestrians, cyclists and vegetation and allow people to choose other methods of transport creating healthier lifestyles  
- community gardens allow for the production of fresh food and it strengthens communities. They can be created by converting empty plots of land
- Part - activism groups have sprung up such as the Guerilla Gardeners and Park(ing) Day. Guerilla gardeners plant flowers and do small scale landscaping in disused areas at night. Park(ing) Day is an event where street parking spaces are turfed and garden ornaments are added to draw attention to issues around green space.
- crime rates are lowered in green areas because there is more pride in the area
- green infastructure has limited funding because developers want to maximise development space 

Environmental Benefits 

- green infrastructure can protect against climate change 
- it can decrease carbon emissions , protect against flooding, heatwaves and drought
- space should be set aside for water sensitive urban design such as reed beds, new water bodies, which can help with water filtration and drainage
- more permeable surfaces are needed in cities to reduce flooding, surfaces such as concrete , tarmac and roofed areas need to be reduced

Fostering Urban Biodiversity 

- biodiversity is important for the health of cities and can increase economics, resources, tourist attractions and revenue 
- bio-luminescent plants could be used as street lights which would reduce carbon emissions
- green infrastructure can can be a way of repopulating and encouraging rare wildlife back 
- The UK Wildlife Trusts Living Landscapes Initiative is a landscape conservation project to restore and stop the decline of wildlife
- it needs to be considered what kind of habitats appeal to wildlife and humans 
- established urban areas can find it difficult to introduce biodiversity because of limited space, however green roofs, walls and facades, reuse of old infrastructure and temporary occupation of empty spaces can be used  
- in dense areas multi story design will be needed on roofs, walls and elevations 
- green roofs in Basel were originally pushed as being energy saving but also for biodiversity. The programme is used as a form of ecological compensation where development has destroyed habitat

Integrating Urban Food 

- alternatives to mass agriculture are needed as we will at some point not be producing enough food for the amount that is consumed, the city could be used as an alternative 
- vertical farming and urban agriculture such as hydroponics could be used to meet demand 
- guerilla gardening , cooperative urban farm scemes , vertical farming and aquaculture can be used in cities 

Renewing Urban Spaces 

- there needs to be a better balance between green and grey 
- development pressures mean that empty spaces need to be regenerated and renewed

Enabling Energy and Resource Efficiency

- living ecosystems can be combined with the city to make it more efficient and improve the quality of life and resource prosperity of residents 
- tree reduce carbon emissions by absorbing pollution , they also cool and insulate preventing urban heat island effect 
- in copenhagen buildings with less than a 30 degree slope will need a green roof 
- mobile green walls allow for adaptability of spaces with a low carbon footprint 
- green concrete absorbs carbon from the atmosphere and stores thermal energy 
- streets provide space for social interaction  

- Biotope area factor is a regulation in Berlin means that a portion of a development must be left undeveloped allowing green infrastructure to be created 

Future Proofing 

- it should be considered who will be using and maintaining the space in the future
- the city should be seen as an ecosystem 
- educating users and clients about the role nature can play in the city 
- spaces need to be adaptable so that they can change and grow  


https://www.arup.com/publications/research/section/cities-alive-rethinking-green-infrastructure

Guerrila Gardening in the UK is a sign of failure

- seen as an exciting thing to do by the media 
- growing things without permission 
- it is a sign of failure suggesting that communities are not functioning, people are isolated, communication has broken down between the public and councillors and that the environment is in decline
- has good intentions but can lead to plants becoming invasive in new habitats 
- communities however also change their areas by using the system which gets results 
- community horticulture can change towns and cities, create tourism, encourage biodiversity and make places happier to live 
- guerrilla gardening is a plaster on the problem rather than solving it

https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/gardening-blog/2014/oct/22/guerrilla-gardening-uk-failure

Why we all need Greening Grey Britain

 

- paving over gardens effects the wider environment

- hard surfaces can create more flooding and increases temperatures within towns and cities 

- small spaces can include both nature and people / cars 

- there are plants that can live in difficult places and are perfect for front gardens

- using new materials for paving can allow rainwater to soak away 

- RHS commissioned a report in 2005 and 2015 

- three times as many front gardens are paved over compared to ten years ago 

- front gardens have decreased by 15%

- 5 million front gardens have no plants growing in them 

- 4.5 million gardens are completely paved over 

- need to reverse this for health, wildlife, reducing pollution and the effects of heatwaves and flooding.

- anyone can plant up an area which will provide for wildlife, increase health and reduce floods 

- they set a three year target to convert 6000 grey spaces into green spaces

- pulling up paving stones, having window boxes, planting front gardens and changing grey community areas

- paving can be seen as the solution to parking problems 

- gardens soak up rain, whilst paving increases the amount of rainwater that runs off by 50%. This goes into drains which can't cope creating flooding.

- hard surfaces mean there is less regulation of temperatures within cities and towns, they absorb heat during the day and release it at night

- 'heat island effect' can lead to poorer air quality, localised weather conditions, higher temperatures and thunderstorms, air conditioning is more likely to be fitted increasing energy consumption 

- removal of trees and plants on streets mean there are less places for wildlife and insects

- green front gardens create privacy and help people meet each other 

- subsidence is caused by hard surfaces 

- even if parking is needed there are ways of intergrating plants into these areas such as planting under cars, introducing shrubs and trees , using containers and adding climbers 

- Paving can be replaced by brick pavers, gravel, matrix pavers and grass reinforcement

https://www.rhs.org.uk/communities/pdf/Greener-Streets/greening-grey-britain-report.pdf 

RHS Campaign Greening Grey Britain

- gardens have an important role in urban and suburban areas

- they support wildlife, protect against flooding, encourage exercise and health etc 

- 'greening' aims to grow things in places in towns and cities 

- people may have small gardens individually but this adds up to a large green space of approx 25% of land in cities 

Benefits of making urban areas more green:

- helps with air cooling in cities and towns during the summer

- garden vegetation insulates buildings 

- air quality is improved

- reduces garden flooding 

- provides habitats for wildlife

- benefits health of people and plants 

RHS Front Garden Summit 

- key part is about converting paved over front gardens
- it also considered the negative effect that paved over areas have on the environment and wellbeing

- Community projects such as Britain in Bloom and It's Your Neighbourhood enable people to green their local environment. This can include running community gardens, renovating run down areas and litter picking / recycling 

https://www.rhs.org.uk/science/gardening-in-a-changing-world/greening-grey-britain/urban-planting

Greening Grey Britian

 

- 4.5 million front gardens have no plants in them at all 

- a quarter of front gardens are completely paved over 

- 60% of people in the UK worry about paved front gardens and flooding 

Initiatives for greening urban areas 

- pulling up a paving stone and planting it up

- having a window box

- planting front gardens 

- changing community areas 

Who can be involved?

- can have a large garden or window box, anyone with outdoor space can make a difference

How Green is your City? UK's top 10 mapped and ranked 

- green space in Britain varies widely 

- Esri UK analysed Landsat 8 satellitte image for the 10 most populated cities in the UK

1. Edinburgh 49.2%

2. Glasgow 32%

3. Bristol 29%

4. Birmingham 24.6%

5. Greater London 23%

6. Sheffield 22.1%

7. Leeds 21.7%

8. Manchester 20.4%

9. Bradford 18.4%

10. Liverpool 16.4%

https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/jan/05/green-space-uk-largest-cities-mapped

Case Study - Leeds Central Square , Urban Planters Franchise

 

- Gold Leaf Award Winner 

- aimed to create a winter garden with seasonal year round interest 

- would have internal and external installations 

- the design would be for public spaces below the offices, where cafes and retail units were situated 

- the green wall has 8,600 plants in the internal and external areas 

- the green wall provides a link between the internal and external planting 

- the green walls allow life, colour and texture to be introduced into the large modern building 

http://www.efig.co.uk/index.php/all-news/item/case-study-leeds-central-square-urban-planters-franchise?jjj=1516792604483

Discovering Urban Biodiversity 

- biodiversity is being lost mainly because of habitat degradation
- the two main causes of habitat destruction are agriculture and urbanisation
- as more of the world is urbanised there is less space for wildlife 
- however many elements of nature, rocks, soils , sunlight, water and life stay despite cities growing around them 
- there is less known by scientists when it comes to urban biodiversity 
- the kinds of species and their numbers will change but some will remain
- urban environments also create new habitats for other wildelife
- urban biodiversity includes small things like plants in pavement cracks, insects feeding, microbes etc 
- parts of cities aren't as heavily built up e.g. parks , low density housing 
- urban biodiversity can be rich 
- documenting species present in cities including where and when they were observed allows better understanding of wildlife distribution
- contact with nature can positively affect peoples health, attitudes and behaviours 
- biodiversity blindness means that the biodiversity that is present goes undetected by a lot of people 
- biodiversity impacts people subconsciously however people do not know a lot about the wildlife they share their spaces with 
- however there are lots of opportunities to learn about natural history
- can also independently learn e.g. Leaf snap is an app that identifies leaf species
- having a personal connection with an issue motivates people to do something about it

https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2012/08/14/discovering-urban-biodiversity/

Accommodating biodiversity in urban environments 

- retrofitting urban areas to include more biodiversity is necessary but difficult to prevent species decline 

- habitat destruction is the main problem for biodiversity 

- cities and urban populations are expanding at a rapid rate 

- where healthy habitats exist these should be retained 

- plant pockets are made from environmentally friendly material and hold wildflower seeds. They can be moved around to form a green surface on new and existing roofs.

- biodiversity solutions will not be put into new designs or retro fitted if developers don't have an incentive to do it or have to because of legislation.

https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/biodiversity-in-urban-environments

Increasing Biodiversity Habitat using Urban Green Infrastructure

- reducing the destruction and degrading of habitats and what is left of habitats 

- restoring and managing habitats is important for biodiversity 

- creating new habitats for biodiversity in cities is important 

- how vegetation is managed influences what animals occur

- large urban green spaces provide high biodiversity benefits to a variety of groups 

- restoration of habitats can take place without compromising recreational values 

- garden bed / lawn spaces could be used to increase urban biodiversity e.g. bio-retention basins 

- bioretention basins had significantly more diversity 

- important factors in bio-retention basins include leaf litter depth, vegetation structure, number of flowering plants, size of bio-retention basin

- green roofs help to restore ecosystem function in high density urban areas

- green infrastructure can create new habitats in cities e.g meadows, sustainable , streetscapes, rain gardens, rooftops, parks, waterfronts

http://www.joondalup.wa.gov.au/Libraries/Biodivercities_day_two/Caragh_Threlfall_-_University_of_Melbourne.pdf